Background and Aims: Neuroinflammation is a key event in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and is sustained by resident glial cells and blood derived monocytes attracted into the brain. Still, monocytes contribution to AD is controversial. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate monocytes recruitment in the AD brain and to understand their involvement in Aβ clearance. The contribution of CCR2 and TSPO receptors to the regulation of chemotaxis was assessed, toghether with that of TREM2 and its soluble form (sTREM2) to phagocytosis. Moreover, the disease-modifying potential of Donepezil, Co-ultraPEALut and anti-Aβ monoclonal antibodies (mAb) - in relation to their ability to influence these processes - was evaluated. Finally, the potential implication of neuroinflammation and the DBI/TSPO system in the agitation/aggression (A/A) cluster of Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (BPSD) was assessed. Materials and Methods: Boyden chamber chemotaxis assays and fluorescence microscopy-based phagocytosis assays were performed on monocytic cell lines and monocytes/macrophages from AD patients and controls. Oligomeric Aβ42 was used as chemoattractant and phagocytic target; the assays were also performed upon stimulation with Donepezil, Co-ultraPEALut and anti-Aβ mAb (at pathologically low levels). Expression of CCR2, TSPO and TREM2 were investigated through Real-time PCR and Western Blot analysis; plasma levels of sTREM2 were measured by ELISA. DBI levels were assessed by ELISA in CSF and serum of A/A patients. TSPO expression in lymphomonocytes from A/A patients was determined by Real-time PCR and Western Blot. Migration of monocytes from A/A patients was quantified through Boyden chamber assay. Results: Aβ42 promotes monocytes migration, but is not able to modulate CCR2 and TSPO expression. Monocytes from AD patients have reduced TREM2 expression, suggestive of limited phagocytic activity. Donepezil inhibits Aβ-induced migration, and impacts the phagocytic activity of cell lines and human macrophages from healthy controls; however, it fails to show any effect in macrophages from AD patients. Co-ultraPEALut prevents Aβ-induced chemotaxis and increases TREM2 expression in macrophages, probably recovering their phagocytic competence. Anti-Aβ mAb decrease Aβ-induced migration, but are not able to increase phagocytosis. DBI levels and TSPO expression do not increase in A/A patients, and monocytes from A/A patients do not show any difference in terms of chemotactic activity compared to their counterparts. Discussion: Taken together, these findings suggest an involvement of Aβ42 in the chemotaxis of monocytes in AD and a reduced phagocytic activity charachterizing macrophages from AD patients. The results fail to completely elucidate the mechanisms underlying Aβ-induced migration, even though they clearly point towards an involvement of TSPO in the process. Donepezil and Co-ultraPEALut emerge as useful therapeutic agents with the potential to counteract neuroinflammation by modulating chemotaxis and phagocytosis, despite treatment response in AD patients requiring additional investigations. On the other hand, an increase in specific anti-Aβ mAb in the brain of AD patient is required to deliver a protective effect in terms of plaque clearance, despite pathologically low intrathecal levels being already sufficient to interfere with monocyte recruitment. Finally, data suggest that the DBI/TSPO system may not be involved in A/A pathogenesis. Conclusion: In the future we propose to elaborate on the modulation of receptors involved in chemotaxis and to complete the characterization of the phagocytic phenotype of peripherally-derived macrophages. Future studies will be also aimed at validating the therapeutic use of the selected disease-modifying compounds. Finally, more experiments will be necessary to understand if neuroinflammation could play a role in the pathogenesis of other BPSD clusters.
La neuroinfiammazione, processo chiave nella malattia di Alzheimer (AD), è mediata da cellule gliali residenti e monociti periferici reclutati a livello centrale. Tuttavia, il ruolo dei monociti nell'AD rimane controverso. Di conseguenza, lo scopo di questo lavoro è quello di studiare il reclutamento dei monociti e capire il loro coinvolgimento nella fagocitosi della β amiloide (Aβ). Particolare attenzione è stata posta al ruolo dei recettori CCR2 e TSPO nella chemiotassi e quello di TREM2 e della sua forma solubile (sTREM2) nella fagocitosi. Inoltre, è stata valutata la capacità di Donepezil, Co-ultraPEALut e anticorpi monoclonali anti-Aβ di influenzare questi processi. Infine, è stato visto il ruolo della neuroifiammazione e del sistema DBI/TSPO nel cluster agitazione/aggressività (A/A) nei disturbi comportamentali associati ad AD (BPSD). Sono stati eseguiti saggi di chemiotassi con camere di Boyden e di fagocitosi mediante microscopia a fluorescenza su linee cellulari e monociti/macrofagi di pazienti AD e controllo. L'Aβ42 oligomerica è stata usata come stimolo chemoattraente e substrato per la fagocitosi; i saggi sono stati condotti anche previa stimolazione con Donepezil, Co-ultraPEALut e anticorpi anti-Aβ (a livelli patologici ridotti). L'espressione di CCR2, TSPO e TREM2 è stata valutata tramite Real-time PCR e Western Blot. I livelli plasmatici di sTREM2 sono stati misurati tramite ELISA, così come i livelli di DBI nel siero e liquor di pazienti A/A. L'espressione di TSPO nei linfomonociti di pazienti A/A è stata valutata tramite Real-time PCR e Western Blot. La migrazione dei monociti di pazienti A/A è stata quantificata con le camere di Boyden. L'Aβ42 promuove la migrazione dei monociti, ma non è in grado di modulare l'espressione di CCR2 e TSPO. I monociti di pazienti AD hanno una ridotta espressione di TREM2, che suggerisce una limitata capacità fagocitica. Il Donepezil inibisce la migrazione Aβ-indotta, e influenza la fagocitosi in linee cellulari e macrofagi umani da soggetti controllo; tuttavia, non ha effetto sui macrofagi dei pazienti AD. Co-ultraPEALut previene la chemiotassi Aβ-indotta e aumenta l'espressione di TREM2 nei macrofagi, probabilmente ristabilendo la loro capacità fagocitica. Gli anticorpi anti-Aβ riducono la chemiotassi Aβ-indotta ma non favoriscono la fagocitosi. I livelli di DBI e l'espressione di TSPO non aumentano nei pazienti A/A, i cui monociti non mostrano neanche alcuna alterazione in termini di attività chemotattica. Nel complesso, questi risultati suggeriscono un coinvolgimento di Aβ42 nella chemiotassi monocitaria nell'AD e la presenza di una ridotta attività fagocitica nei macrofagi dei pazienti AD. I risultati non chiariscono completamente i meccanismi coinvolti nella chemiotassi Aβ-indotta, nonostante puntino chiaramente verso un coinvolgimento del recettore TSPO. Donepezil e Co-ultraPEALut sono emersi come agenti terapeutici validi per contrastare la neuroinfiammazione attraverso la modulazione di chemiotassi e fagocitosi, anche se il loro effetto sui pazienti AD necessita di ulteriori approfondimenti. D'altro canto, per quanto i livelli patologici di anticorpi anti-Aβ siano sufficienti a interferire con il reclutamento dei monociti, è necessario aumentare il loro livello cerebrale per avere un effetto protettivo in termini di fagocitosi dell'Aβ. Infine, i dati suggeriscono che il sistema DBI/TSPO potrebbe non essere coinvolto nella patogenesi del fenotipo agitazione/aggressività dei BPSD. In futuro ci proponiamo di approfondire il ruolo dei recettori coinvolti nella chemiotassi e di completare la caratterizzazione del fenotipo fagocitico dei macrofagi periferici. Studi successivi serviranno anche a validare l'uso terapeutico dei composti testati. Infine, saranno necessari ulteriori esperimenti per comprendere se la neuroinfiammazione può giocare un ruolo nella patogenesi di altri tipi di BPSD.
(2022). NEUROINFLAMMATION IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: A CENTRAL ROLE FOR PERIPHERAL MONOCYTES. (Tesi di dottorato, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, 2022).
NEUROINFLAMMATION IN THE PATHOGENESIS OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: A CENTRAL ROLE FOR PERIPHERAL MONOCYTES
ANGIULLI, FEDERICA
2022
Abstract
Background and Aims: Neuroinflammation is a key event in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and is sustained by resident glial cells and blood derived monocytes attracted into the brain. Still, monocytes contribution to AD is controversial. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate monocytes recruitment in the AD brain and to understand their involvement in Aβ clearance. The contribution of CCR2 and TSPO receptors to the regulation of chemotaxis was assessed, toghether with that of TREM2 and its soluble form (sTREM2) to phagocytosis. Moreover, the disease-modifying potential of Donepezil, Co-ultraPEALut and anti-Aβ monoclonal antibodies (mAb) - in relation to their ability to influence these processes - was evaluated. Finally, the potential implication of neuroinflammation and the DBI/TSPO system in the agitation/aggression (A/A) cluster of Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (BPSD) was assessed. Materials and Methods: Boyden chamber chemotaxis assays and fluorescence microscopy-based phagocytosis assays were performed on monocytic cell lines and monocytes/macrophages from AD patients and controls. Oligomeric Aβ42 was used as chemoattractant and phagocytic target; the assays were also performed upon stimulation with Donepezil, Co-ultraPEALut and anti-Aβ mAb (at pathologically low levels). Expression of CCR2, TSPO and TREM2 were investigated through Real-time PCR and Western Blot analysis; plasma levels of sTREM2 were measured by ELISA. DBI levels were assessed by ELISA in CSF and serum of A/A patients. TSPO expression in lymphomonocytes from A/A patients was determined by Real-time PCR and Western Blot. Migration of monocytes from A/A patients was quantified through Boyden chamber assay. Results: Aβ42 promotes monocytes migration, but is not able to modulate CCR2 and TSPO expression. Monocytes from AD patients have reduced TREM2 expression, suggestive of limited phagocytic activity. Donepezil inhibits Aβ-induced migration, and impacts the phagocytic activity of cell lines and human macrophages from healthy controls; however, it fails to show any effect in macrophages from AD patients. Co-ultraPEALut prevents Aβ-induced chemotaxis and increases TREM2 expression in macrophages, probably recovering their phagocytic competence. Anti-Aβ mAb decrease Aβ-induced migration, but are not able to increase phagocytosis. DBI levels and TSPO expression do not increase in A/A patients, and monocytes from A/A patients do not show any difference in terms of chemotactic activity compared to their counterparts. Discussion: Taken together, these findings suggest an involvement of Aβ42 in the chemotaxis of monocytes in AD and a reduced phagocytic activity charachterizing macrophages from AD patients. The results fail to completely elucidate the mechanisms underlying Aβ-induced migration, even though they clearly point towards an involvement of TSPO in the process. Donepezil and Co-ultraPEALut emerge as useful therapeutic agents with the potential to counteract neuroinflammation by modulating chemotaxis and phagocytosis, despite treatment response in AD patients requiring additional investigations. On the other hand, an increase in specific anti-Aβ mAb in the brain of AD patient is required to deliver a protective effect in terms of plaque clearance, despite pathologically low intrathecal levels being already sufficient to interfere with monocyte recruitment. Finally, data suggest that the DBI/TSPO system may not be involved in A/A pathogenesis. Conclusion: In the future we propose to elaborate on the modulation of receptors involved in chemotaxis and to complete the characterization of the phagocytic phenotype of peripherally-derived macrophages. Future studies will be also aimed at validating the therapeutic use of the selected disease-modifying compounds. Finally, more experiments will be necessary to understand if neuroinflammation could play a role in the pathogenesis of other BPSD clusters.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Descrizione: TESI DOTTORATO ANGIULLI
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